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Human DevelopmentRecreation is a key to balanced Human Development - helping Canadians reach for their potential
Ulrich (1987) considered the relationship between perceived competence and demonstrated competence in basic motor abilities and sports skills in children 5 to 10 years of age; he stated that "children with the highest perceived competence tend to show better levels of motor competence, more so in specialized sports skills than in basic motor ability items. Also, lack of success in motor activities at young ages may in turn have a significant impact on the motivation to participate in physical activities at later ages.
Youth involved in sports demonstrate greater levels of perceived physical competence compared to those who are not involved. (Feltz et al., 1983)
Currently active young athletes and those with more experience in sports have higher levels of perceived competence than those who have dropped out and who have less experience. (Malina, 1994)
Among children 8 to 15 years of age, first physical appearance and then social acceptance have the most impact on children's self-worth thus regular physical activity has the potential to contribute to self-concept and self-worth. (Harter, 1989)
Evidence suggests that elementary school children competent in motor skills attain greater social success and status than the less competent, and that leadership and peer acceptance is related to proficiency in motor skills. Further, 9 and 10 year old boys and girls are rated higher in social competence than those not involved in sports. (Evans, et al., 1987)
Researchers found that recess provided significant opportunities to be physically and socially active. The level of social activity and post-recess attentional measures were strongly correlated. The longer children waited to obtain recess time, the less attentive they became during classroom time. (Pellegrini et al., 1993)
In 1951 over the following nine years, the French Ministry set up several experiments in the elementary schools in Vanves aimed at obtaining a better balance between physical and intellectual activities, thereby arriving at a more effective way of educating children. The results showed that:
Follow-up experiments were repeated in Belgium and Japan with similar results. Results are known as the 1/3 timetable, since nearly one-third of the daily or weekly timetable should be devoted to physical education to achieve maximum learning/developmental results. (Mackenzie, 1980)
The conclusions that can be drawn concerning the relationship between physical activity, Learning, and academic performance in children include:
Studies replicated across Canada showed that students who were involved in physical activity programs had better self-concepts and were academically superior to children who were not active; another study demonstrated that children who participated in 5 hours of physical activity a week had significantly higher marks in academic programs than children who did not participate in physical activity. (Robbins, 1992)
Children. who participate in sports gain strong task oriented skills plus valuable concepts and values. These include:
Regular physical activity during childhood and youth may function to prevent or impede the development of several adult diseases plus directly and positively influence habits in adulthood and in turn have beneficial influence on the overall health status of adults. (Malina, 1991)
Participation in physical activity and recreation for children and youth can provide positive benefits related to psychological health, physical health, familial interaction, peer influence, academic performance, community development and other lifestyle behaviours. A criticism stated in the discussion paper is "the perception that services are for white middle-class youth only" and not enough concern about the real physical activity and recreation interests of the youth. However, recreation, parks, arts, sports departments, agencies, programs, etc. do deliver benefits to youth, and together with related services can provide the 10 things youth want most in life:
Researchers have found a vast number of programs taking place at the national, provincial, and local levels, both government and non-government. The research report demonstrates many examples of successful programs delivered by recreation, parks, arts/culture, and sport groups and agencies to benefit youth at risk. (CPRA et al., A discussion paper on 'Impact and Benefits of Physical Activity and Recreation on Canadian Youth at Risk’, undated)
Well structured sport programs can provide children with opportunities to participate in physical activity that has immediate and long term benefits including higher levels of fitness, better health, social involvement, and the satisfaction derived from developing skill in group & individual activities. (Mounsell, 1985)
Physical activity is essential for preventing children from becoming obese. Physical activity regulates obesity because it increases energy expenditure, suppresses appetite, increases metabolic rate, and increases lean body mass. (Seefeldt et al., 1986)
Modified judo practice was shown to improve physical fitness, developmental skills, fine and gross motor skills, and psychosocial attitude in a study involving children who were blind and developmentally delayed. (Gleser et al., 1992)
The weight, body mass, 4 scores from the Health Related Physical Fitness Test, and the total score from the Self-Concept Scale was assessed with 97 elementary school children in Grades 1 to 6. Physical fitness was found to be positively related to the development of a positive self-concept. (Folsom-Meek, 1991)
After reviewing over 60 studies, Barnett (1991) concluded that the research generally supports the contention that play may have a significant impact on problem-solving ability.
After reviewing over 40 studies, Barnett (1991) also concluded that there is some support for suggesting that play is related to the child's creative ability and to divergent thinking. The research also suggests several processes through which play may contribute to creativity:
Several researchers have investigated the possibility that important social gains, are made through the child's playful experiences (Garvey, 1977; Greif, 1977; Hartup, 1978). Examples of such social skills that show gains through play interactions are cooperation, helping, sharing, and success at solving social problems. (Barnett, 1991)
In a study of preschool and early school-age children, ratings of the frequency and quality of social play were compared with several measures of social competence. The findings indicated that fantasy play measures could be significant predictors of social competence outcome measures, (Connolly, 1980, Connolly & Doyle, 1984)
E. Boyer, president of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, stated; "During the past quarter century, literally thousands of school-based programs have demonstrated beyond question that the arts can not only bring coherence to our fragmented academic world, but through the arts, students' performance in other academic disciplines can be enhanced as well. (National Endowment for the Arts, 1995)
Politicians in the United States demonstrated the value and benefits of the arts by:
Howard Gardner of Harvard University, developed the groundbreaking theory of multiple intelligence. He shows that the arts play a crucial role in improving students' ability to learn because they draw on a range of intelligence and learning styles, not just the linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligence upon which most schools are based. Specifically, students of the arts continue to outperform their non-arts peers on the Scholastic Assessment Test, according to the College Entrance Examination Board. In 1995, SAT scores for students who studied the arts more than four years were 59 points higher on the verbal and 44 points higher on the math portion than students with no course work or experience in the arts. (National Endowment for the Arts, 1995)
Reading, writing, and math skills can be enhanced through the arts. Many studies document the role of the arts in improving basic skills, the 3'Rs; because of mounting evidence linking arts to basic learning, some researchers refer to the arts as "The Fourth R". Some of these studies include:
Creativity is naturally developed through the arts. Arts education requires people to draw on their creative abilities and deepen them; once creative ability is learned, it lasts for a lifetime and can be applied in other endeavours. Research shows:
According to a U.S. Labor Department's report namely, 'Secretary's Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills'; Arts education aids achievement of 'core competencies' needed for employment. The arts are cited as critical for certain 'foundation' skills which include thinking creatively, problem solving, exercising individual responsibility, sociability and self-esteem. (National Endowment for the Arts, 1995)
The Canadian Arts Consumer Profile reports that 91% of Canadians surveyed agree that "it is important to expose children to the arts." (National Endowment for the Arts, 1995)
Japan spends $5 per capita on arts education. In Canada, we spend $1.20 per person. The Japanese believe that: "A grounding in the arts will help our children bring a uniquely human perspective to science and technology." (Alberta Community Development)
Dr. F. Wilson, a clinical professor of neurology at the University of California School of Medicine has conducted studies that show that instrumental music practice enhances coordination, concentration, and memory; and also brings about improvement of eyesight and hearing. His research has shown that involvement in music connects and develops the motor systems of the brain in a way that cannot be done by any other activity; music more fully involves brain functions (right and left) than any other activities studied. (Alberta Community Development)
Rauscher, F.(1993) and her colleagues at the University of California in Irvine, studied 3 year olds involved in music training and group singing classes around 'spatial reasoning' They found that, after the music lessons, the spatial reasoning scores of both groups (inner city and arts students) nearly doubled. Music might be considered a pre-language that excites inherent brain patterns and promotes their use in complex reasoning tasks. Based on their findings, they predict that music at an early age - when the connections in the brain are most plastic provides exercise for higher brain functions.
The point and justification of leisure, Pieper (1963) is that people must be more than mere functionaries, and must: "Retain the faculty of grasping the world as a whole and realize (their) full potentialities as entities meant to reach wholeness, … Because wholeness is what (people) strive for, the power to achieve leisure is one of the fundamental powers of the human soul. (Goodale et al., 1996, p. 44)
All activities, whether work or leisure, can potentially contribute to a fundamental, task of defining one's self. (Goodale et al., 1996)
Efficacy cognition appears to be significantly influenced by both acute and long term exercise participation; psychological well-being influenced by physical activity participation; research suggests that beliefs in personal capabilities or self-efficacy perceptions are enhanced by both acute and longer term physical activity participation, master experiences or performance accomplishments also serve as standards by which to gauge future progress and set subsequent participation goals, thereby enhancing motivation. (McAuley, 1994)
A 1994 study found that Albertans associated many benefits in their life with active living; improved health (49% rate); improved lifestyle (16%) and mental well-being (11%); social benefits (7%); fitness and appearance (7%) and increased productivity (3%). (Mummery et. al., 1994)
Physical competence has a direct effect on global self-worth and an indirect effect through perceptions of physical acceptance. (Sonstroem, 1986)
Research shows that the personal goals people adopt influence how they interpret and respond to achievement activities. (Ames, 1992)
Csikszentmihatyi (1988) conducted cross cultural studies with 636 people based on the question, "How does the flow experience start, and what keeps it going?". The researcher argues that flow is a dynamic force in evolution. "Flow forces people to stretch themselves, to always take on another challenge, to improve their abilities."
The most frequent responses were:
Some observations from the study are:
Donald Hodges (1996) from the University of Texas presents the Latest discoveries on neuromusical research as follows:
Harvard University's Howard Gardner (1996) renowned for his theory of multiple intelligences first described in 'Frames of Mind', says musical intelligence probably carries more emotional, spiritual and cultural weight than the other intelligences (verbal, mathematical, kinesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal). Most important Gardner says, is that music helps people organize the way they think and work by helping them develop in other areas such as math, language, and spatial reasoning.
Rauscher & Shaw's (1995) research found that college students' spatial IQ scores rose significantly after listening to Mozart's Piano Sonata K448 (now known as the Mozart's effect).
A consistent finding in the goal perspective literature has been the positive association between task orientation and sport enjoyment. Among a significant sample of high school athletes, researchers (Duda, 1989) examined interdependencies between dispositional goal perspectives and perceptions of the overall purposes of sport involvement; the athletes held several beliefs about sport participation:
Those who have more prior experiences with sports and physical activity at 15 years of age have higher psychological readiness (operationally defined as having a more positive view of their body and capabilities in sport and a more positive attitude toward fitness activities) for physical activity at 30 years of age; mates more so than females. (Engstrom, 1986, 1991)
A large number of studies by Tinsley and associates have demonstrated conclusively that recreation activities deliver the following psychological, benefits to adults: self-expression, companionship, power, compensation, security, service, intellectual, aestheticism, and solitude. (Driver, Howard, Tinsley, & Manfredo, 1991)
The Recreation Experience Preference (REP) Scales have repeatedly demonstrated that outdoor recreation activities contribute to the following positive experiences: enjoyment of nature, physical fitness, reduction of tension, escape from physical stressors, outdoor learning, value sharing, independence, family relations, introspection/spiritual, social security, achievement/stimulation, physical rest, teaching/leading others, risk taking, risk reduction, meeting new people, creativity, nostalgia, agreeable temperatures. (Driver, Howard, Tinsley, and Manfredo, 1991)
Novelty seems to be an important benefit. For example, in a study of the psychological outcomes of leisure, activities that typically occur in natural areas (hiking, camping, canoeing, and lake fishing) were rated highest for satisfying "the person's needs to experience something new, fresh, or unusual"; ... needs not satisfied by their job or daily routine. (Driver, Howard, Tinsley, & Monfredo, 1991)
Cross-sectional investigations with humans consistently show a strong positive association between physical activity and exercise and cognitive-neuropsychological functioning. Exercise effects structural and chemical changes within the central nervous system. Regular practice of exercise compared with a sedentary lifestyle, is associated with:
Lewis Thomas stated: "Science will ... produce the data ... but never the full meaning. For perceiving real significance, we shall need ... most of all the brains of poets, and also those of artists, musicians, philosophers, historians, and writers in general. (National Endowment for the Arts, 1995)
The literary, music, and arts heritage of the U.S. reveals a powerful influence by the outdoors. Some examples are:
Historian Freeman Tilden (1884-1980) wrote, "Any thoughtful person may find and meditate upon the fifth essence (an element beyond fire, air, earth, and water) which is more available in our parks than anywhere else. "Many a man has gone unexpectedly and found a renewal and affirmation of himself". Natural elements and events furnish evidence of the order and creation of which we are a part; daily miracles (eg. Milky Way) provide feelings of security and contentment. (Values of Outdoor Opportunities; Jensen, 1995)
A social advantage of outdoor activities is that they unite people with similar interests and foster friendships. Also, outdoor physical activity (hiking, rock climbing, canoeing, bicycling, skiing, and swimming), raise the body's efficiency and combats health problems resulting from a lack of exercise. Even walking in scenic places provides fun, adventure, health, and inspiration. (Values of Outdoor Opportunities, in Jensen, 1995)
A three year study on Tasmanian forests asked several hundred visitors to these forests and other wildland areas what benefits they felt they gained from their experience. Researchers grouped their responses into the following categories:
Respondents also commented on the long term benefits from their outdoor experience as follows:
The above study results led to a survey (repeated at quarterly intervals to account for seasonal differences). The final report of the survey findings has not been completed; however, the researchers state the top-rated benefit statements to date which respondents feet they received are:
Spring's work (1992) stated that Americans are motivated to choose leisure activities for nine reasons. The motivations from most important to least important are:
Research on outcomes related to the wilderness training and outdoor leadership programs of NOLS (National Outdoor Leadership School, US) indicate that substantial personal growth benefits are realized by participants as a byproduct. (Driver et al., 1990; Easley, 1985; Shin, 1988)
In the book, "Amateur, Professional and Serious Leisure", Stebbins (1992) outlines his research conducted in 8 fields, theatre, music, archaeology, astronomy, baseball, football, magic, and stand-up comedy. Through familiarity with the life-styles of the participants, interviews, observations, analysis, and reporting, Stebbins presents the following findings:
Only relaxation leads learning in importance as a motivator for many leisure activities. Learning, education, and protecting the environment are high priority motivators for participating -in leisure activities. (Roggenbuck et al., 1990)
Beard and Ragheb (1980) developed a Leisure Satisfaction Scale to measure the extent to which individuals perceived that certain personal needs are met through participation in leisure activities. The scale included six types of leisure outcomes: psychological, educational, social, relaxational, physiological, and aesthetic. Educational benefits tied for fourth position along with aesthetic benefits. Relaxational outcomes were most important; physiological benefits were least important.
Spring (1992) found that intellectual reasons ranked fifth on a list of 9 primary motivations behind American's choice of leisure activities 68% of those studied selected this category which included reading, solving puzzles, curiosity, and lifelong learning.
Levels of formal education are increasing at a great rate, and society is at the forefront of developing models of lifelong learning for the majority. Such a situation means leisure must increasingly serve as an arena for both acquiring substantive knowledge and exercising it (Goodale et al., 1996)
Driver & others (1987) asked users of natural areas (8 designated wilderness areas, 4 non designated wilderness areas, 3 non wilderness areas) to rank the importance of 16 recreation experience preference domains -the spiritual domain or scale was ranked 8th most important (of 16) for designated wilderness users, 6th most important for undesignated wilderness users, and 12th for users of non wilderness natural areas.
The experiential values of natural environments involve the following qualities and dimensions:
What is common to all human societies is their need for a sense of place - a feeling of living in an environment which has boundaries and identity. This longing to feel integrated is coded in one's DNA - it is the desire for what Jung (1960) calls a "kinship with all things" , To identify with a place is to belong to it and to belong is to feel human. (Roberts, 1996)
A place is a spatial part of the environment that one is related to through one's experiences, imagination or feelings. It is through place that a mobile organism makes sense of its habitat. Experiences of place allows one to orient and identify with the environment and make the world of space meaningful to oneself. It is through our relatedness with the natural world that we gain our most basic orientation to life. Through sensual, cognitive, and intuitive interactive processes with their surroundings people create the experience of place which can be:
This reciprocity at the heart of connection with place is multi-dimensional extending from physical grounding to the psychological and cultural realms of intellect, symbol, and emotion. Some psychotherapists and clinical psychologists point out that modern people are experiencing a spiritual famine in their lives, and that alcohol, food, and drug addictions are futile attempts to fill the spiritual emptiness left out by loss of contact with nature. (Jaffe, 1990; Johnson, 1987; Schroeder, 1990). Also, research on natural environments shows positive psychological benefits from experience in natural places (ranging from parks to wilderness). This includes viewing the desire to escape urban stressors as an important motivation for seeking natural places in which to restore body, mind, and spirit. (Roberts, 1996)
Outdoor experiences can instill strong spiritual values; we all are strengthened and enriched by places where nature heals, consoles and refreshes the body and soul. Ralph Waldo Emerson evoked the power of outdoor experiences to generate feelings of freedom, serenity, and humility in our lives. (Values of Outdoor Opportunities, In Jensen, 1995)
Driver et al. (1996) knows nature-based, spiritual experiences cannot be defined adequately to the satisfaction of everyone but they include:
A major benefit of leisure may be to provide an opportunity to experience a sense of spirituality. The perceived sense of spiritual experience may affect the individual in ways that involve the capacity for introspection, humility, and feelings of belonging ... allows an opportunity to engage in this experience when the mind is not otherwise preoccupied or the individual is busy. (McDonald et al., 1991)
The wilderness experience has cognitive and affective components that may potentially produce a transcendent experience. (Stankey & Schreyer, 1987)
Tuan (1975) describes connectedness with place as geopiety - a sense of reverence for the earth; and Graber (1976) focuses on the notion of 'sacred space' - places that hold special significance to individuals, groups, or cultures. (McDonald & Schreyer, 1991)
The spiritual significance of nature was compared with eight world relgious traditions. The results suggest the following relationships:
1. aware - appreciation of the passing nature of beauty
2. yugen - mysterious depths of complexity in nature
3. wabi the beauty of simplicity and poverty
4. sabi beauty of solitude and tranquillity in nature
5. yojo sensitivity to relational, dynamic quality of nature
McDonald and Schreyer (1991) remind us that the natural environment is an integral component of many religions:
In Aboriginal and First Nation cultures, spirituality is an integral aspect of daily interaction with the functions of life and bound to the land that provides support and life. Taoism emphasizes the fundamental interconnectedness between humans and the community of life. The notion of Christ going into the wilderness for spiritual inspiration and Moses receiving the Ten Commandments in the wilderness characterizes the Judeo-Christian view of wilderness. (Bratton, 1986)
A qualitative, study examined both the perception of leisure of individuals in a specific Christian community and the links between their religious ideas and their leisure attitudes and behaviour. The results of the interviews supported the leisure literature:
Through the groundbreaking research of two Chileans, Maturana and Varela, researchers are given a fresh understanding of how the human - through perceptual and cognitive functions - cocreates an experience of place out of the complexities of nature. The Santiago theory, is based on a systems view of life. According to this research, humans interact with their coupling" (i.e., through structural changes in each system). (Roberts, 1996)
Perception is a relationship between the organism and its environment taken together - "affordances". The various surfaces of the environment afford one perception as one moves through them - active, exploratory systems attuned to dynamic meanings or patterns already present in the environment. The insight that one's true nature arises from. one's relationship with others applies to all living beings. (Roberts, 1996)
The research in this area points to the fact that a great many of the psychological and spiritual benefits derived from place experiences are predicated upon an encounter with that which is unfamiliar, unknown, and uncontrolled - the wild (wilderness). (Roberts, 1996)
Qualitative research on people's experiences of natural environments shows that strong emotional ties can exist between people and elements of natural settings such as trees and forests. Natural features help to create a sense of place; that is, a feeling of identification and belonging. The deepest and strongest attachments may give rise to spiritual experiences in which people feet a sense of connection with a larger reality that helps give meaning to their lives. (Schroeder, 1996)
Stephen Bacon analyzed Outward Bound and revealed another way the outdoors contributes to the inner healing of the people who go there. He speaks of the importance of the sacred place. Implicit in the experience of sacred place is the concept of transformation and change. When one experiences a natural place, especially in the context of programs like the wilderness solo or vision quest, one accepts the possibility that some kind of transformation may occur. This acceptance may not be conscious but it is there, and it makes change, growth, and healing possible. (Bacon, 1983)
Vice President Gore (1993) observed that the ultimate dichotomy of the "dominant social paradigm" is the separation of human experience in the world from the human spirit. He viewed the human spirit as a "kind of inner ecology that relates perception, emotions, thinking, and choices to forces outside ourselves" and suggests that the implication is that we need to foster a new "environmentalism of the spirit" This entails a reconnecting of the intellect with the physical world leading in turn to a reconnection of mind with body, thinking with feeling, facts with values, and knowledge with morality. Gore argued that the catalyst for this change should be to "make the rescue of the environment a central organizing principle for civilization" just as the commitment to democracy and free markets has served as the central organizing principle in the struggle for the ideas of freedom and human rights. (Baltic, 1996)
Visitors come to cultural sites to find personal meaning as well as to learn about the past. Preliminary results of a study of visitors to three Anasazi cultural parks in the Southwest U.S. found that people were drawn to the parks in order "to get a perspective on the present through an understanding of the past, to grow and develop spiritually," to "feel isolated" and to "be in a calm atmosphere". (Lee & Stephens, 1993) Visitors are drawn to heritage sites to take advantage of the powers attributed to these sites by earlier native cultures. Tourism and the search for spirituality are closely linked. The literature on tourism contains an ongoing discussion of the similarities between pilgrimages, a largely spiritual journey "born of desire and belief" (Morinis, 1992) and tourism (Cohen, 1992, Smith, 1992). The nature of these places varies, including natural features such as mountains, hot springs and caves, burial grounds, medicine -wheels, pictographs and ancient dwellings. (Lee et al., 1996)
In a quatitative study of persons with and without disabilities who participated on an integrated wilderness canoe trip, subjects described the spiritual benefits related to interaction with the natural environment. These include:
Anthropological and psychological evidence suggests a primal need in humans to connect with nature. Harvard's preeminent biologist Edward Wilson calls it the "Biophilia hypothesis" The theory holds that the human need for association with the natural world goes beyond mere attraction or appreciation of nature's utilitarian values. Biophilia implies that we are inextricably [inked with nature; that as we evolved in close association with nature, we developed an unshakable, biologically based emotional dependence on the living world. "This proposition suggests that human identity and personal fulfillment somehow depends on our relationship to nature"; the natural world influences our emotional, cognitive, aesthetic and even spiritual development; losing touch with nature exposes us to a 'deprived and diminished existence' (Trust for Public Land, 1994)
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